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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Meta-learning</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about meta learning in social psychology. For meta learning in computer science, see <a href="Meta-learning_(computer_science)" title="Meta-learning (computer science)">meta-learning (computer science)</a>. For metalearning in neuroscience, see <a href="Metalearning_(neuroscience)" title="Metalearning (neuroscience)">metalearning (neuroscience)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Meta-learning</b> is a branch of <a href="Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognition</a> concerned with learning about one's own learning and learning processes.

</p><p>The term comes from the <a href="Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">meta</a> prefix's modern meaning of an abstract <a href="Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a>, or "X about X", similar to its use in <a href="Metaknowledge" title="Metaknowledge">metaknowledge</a>, <a href="Metamemory" title="Metamemory">metamemory</a>, and <a href="Meta-emotion" title="Meta-emotion">meta-emotion</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meta_learning_model_for_teams_and_relationships">Meta learning model for teams and relationships</h2></div>

<p><a href="Marcial_Losada" title="Marcial Losada">Marcial Losada</a> and other researchers have attempted to create a meta learning model to analyze teams and relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-Losada_2005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Losada_2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 paper provided a strong critique<sup id="cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WishfulThinking-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of this attempt, arguing that it was based on misapplication of complex mathematical modelling. This led to its abandonment by at least one former proponent.<sup id="cite_ref-Fredrickson2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fredrickson2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The meta learning model proposed by Losada is identical to the <a href="Lorenz_system" title="Lorenz system">Lorenz system</a>, which was originally proposed as a simplified mathematical model for <a href="Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">atmospheric convection</a>. It comprises one <a href="Control_variable_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (statistics)">control parameter</a> and three <a href="State_variables" class="mw-redirect" title="State variables">state variables</a>, which in this case have been mapped to "connectivity", "inquiry-advocacy", "positivity-negativity", and "other-self" (external-internal focus) respectively. The state variables are linked by a set of nonlinear <a href="Differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential equations">differential equations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been criticized as a poorly defined, poorly justified, and invalid application of differential equations.<sup id="cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WishfulThinking-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Losada and colleagues claim to have arrived at the meta learning model from thousands of <a href="Time_series" title="Time series">time series</a> data generated at two human interaction laboratories in <a href="Ann_Arbor%2C_Michigan" title="Ann Arbor, Michigan">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a>, and <a href="Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Losada_2005_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Losada_2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the details of the collection of this data, and the connection between the time series data and the model is unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WishfulThinking-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These time series portrayed the interaction dynamics of business teams doing typical business tasks such as <a href="Strategic_planning" title="Strategic planning">strategic planning</a>. These teams were classified into three performance categories: high, medium and low. Performance was evaluated by the profitability of the teams, the level of satisfaction of their clients, and 360-degree evaluations.

</p><p>One proposed result of this theory is that there is a ratio of positivity-to-negativity of at least 2.9 (called the <a href="Losada_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Losada line">Losada line</a>), which separates high from low performance teams as well as flourishing from languishing in individuals and relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brown and colleagues pointed out that even if the proposed meta-learning model were valid, this ratio results from a completely arbitrary choice of model parameters carried over from the literature on modeling atmospheric convection by Lorenz and others, without any justification.<sup id="cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WishfulThinking-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideas_for_implementation_and_goals">Ideas for implementation and goals</h2></div>

<p>Meta learning can also be a very effective tool to assist students in becoming independently self-reflective. Students will require feedback in order to reflect on their learning, strengths, and weaknesses. Meta learning tasks will help students be more proactive and effective learners by focusing on developing self-awareness. Meta learning tasks would provide students with the opportunity to better understand their thinking processes in order to devise custom learning strategies. The goal is to find a set of parameters that work well across different tasks so that learners start with a bias that allows them to perform well despite receiving only a small amount of task-specific data.

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<ul><li><a href="Learning_styles" title="Learning styles">Learning styles</a></li>

<li><a href="Mentalization" title="Mentalization">Mentalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Metacognition" title="Metacognition">Metacognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaknowledge" title="Metaknowledge">Metaknowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-emotion" title="Meta-emotion">Meta-emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-regulated_learning" title="Self-regulated learning">Self-regulated learning</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Losada_2005-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Losada_2005_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Losada_2005_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">(Losada, 1999; Losada & Heaphy, 2004; Fredrickson & Losada, 2005)</span>

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<li id="cite_note-WishfulThinking-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WishfulThinking_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, N. J. L., Sokal, A. D., & Friedman, H. L. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23855896">The Complex Dynamics of Wishful Thinking: The Critical Positivity Ratio</a>. American Psychologist. Electronic publication ahead of print.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-Fredrickson2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fredrickson2013_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fredrickson, B. L. (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/Fredrickson%202013%20Updated%20Thinking.pdf">Updated thinking on positivity ratios.</a> American Psychologist. Electronic publication ahead of print.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Losada, 1999; Fredrickson & Losada, 2005; for a graphical representation of the meta learning model see Losada & Heaphy, 2004)</span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Fredrickson & Losada, 2005; Waugh & Fredrickson, 2006; Fredrickson, 2009)</span>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Norton, L. & Walters, D. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/6126826/pr1.pdf#page=111">Encouraging meta-learning through personal development planning: first year students’ perceptions of what makes a really good student</a>. PRIME (Pedagogical Research In Maximising Education), in-house journal, Liverpool Hope University, 1 (1) 109–124.</li>

<li>Meyer, J. H. F. & Shanahan, M. P. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://srhe.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1470329042000277020">Developing metalearning capacity in students — Actionable theory and practical lessons learned in first-year economics</a>. Innovations in Education and Teaching International (Special issue: Meta learning in Higher Education), 41 (4) 443–458.</li>

<li>Losada, M. (1999). The complex dynamics of high performance teams. <i>Mathematical and Computer Modelling</i>, 30 (9–10), pp. 179–192.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://losada.socialpsychology.org">[1]</a></li>

<li>Losada, M. & Heaphy, E. (2004). The role of positivity and connectivity in the performance of business teams: A nonlinear dynamics model. <i>American Behavioral Scientist</i>, 47 (6), pp. 740–765.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100602052915/http://mattselker.org/Documents/positive%20to%20negative%20attractors%20in%20business%20teams.pdf">[2]</a></li>

<li>Fredrickson, B. L. & Losada, M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/human_flourishing.pdf">Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing.</a> <i>American Psychologist,</i> 60 (7) 678–686.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://losada.socialpsychology.org">[3]</a></li>

<li>Waugh, C. E. & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/Waugh%20-%20PE-self-other%20overlap_in%20new%20relationships_JOPP.pdf">Nice to know you: Positive emotions, self-other overlap, and complex understanding in the formation of a new relationship.</a> <i>The Journal of Positive Psychology</i>, 1 (2), 93–106.</li>

<li>Fredrickson, B. L. (2009). <i>Positivity</i>. Crown Publishers, New York.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.enablersnetwork.com/2009/11/01/marcial-losada-explains-his-research-for-our-blog-readers/">Summary of meta learning research by Dr. Losada</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leadingwithlift.com/blog/2010/02/22/increasing-profit-how-far-should-an-executive-go/comment-page-1/#comment-1080">Comment from Losada about executives implementing the model</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://PositivePsychologyNews.com/news/guest-author/200812081289">Article about meta learning from Losada (part 1)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://PositivePsychologyNews.com/news/guest-author/200812091298">Article about meta learning from Losada (part 2)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060902101254/http://www.tenfacesofinnovation.com/stories/archives/12">Comment from Losada about negativity in the workplace</a></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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